Every right counts: When discipline turns violent

Across Europe and Central Asia, millions of children are subjected to violent punishment – whether verbally, or physically – by the people responsible for their care.

This edition of the Every Right Counts series focuses on violent discipline by parents and other caregivers. While this is one of the most common forms of violence against children, it is also among the least visible, as it often takes place behind closed doors – whether in the family environment or places such as alternative care arrangements, custodial facilities or communal living for refugees and migrants.

While violence against children (VAC) also occurs in schools and communities at the hand of peers or adults known or unknown to them, this story looks specifically at how children aged 1–14 years are punished through violent acts by their parents and other caregivers.

Recent findings from the latest TransMonEE Analytical Series report, Where We Live and Learn: Violence against children in Europe and Central Asia, show that nearly one in three children in the region experiences physical punishment by parents or other caregivers. Psychological aggression affects between 36 and 69 per cent of children in the 15 countries where data are available. These forms of violent discipline often occur together, compounding the harm children experience.

Laws are changing, but practice is slower to shift

As of 2025, 39 countries in Europe and Central Asia have banned corporal punishment in all settings, including the home, recognizing it as harmful and a violation of children’s rights. Several governments also made pledges at the 2024 Global Ministerial Conference on Ending Violence Against Children, signalling momentum for change.

However, even with laws, policy commitments and growing awareness of the harm caused by violent discipline, these practices remain widespread. They are often seen as a normal part of child-rearing rather than a violent act against a child and a violation of the child’s rights.

Using survey data to uncover inequities

This data story builds on those findings by examining which children are at higher risk of violent discipline, using household survey data from Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS). In Europe and Central Asia, recent MICS data on violent discipline are available for only 11 out of 55 countries, highlighting persistent data gaps across the region. Furthermore, the available data also cover only children aged 1–14 years.

Even with these gaps, the data remind us that violence against children is not confined to conflict or crisis settings, although these contexts often escalate the risk of violence.  It frequently takes place in the most familiar setting of all – the home.

The risk of physical punishment both rises and falls with age

Across countries with recent data, rates of physical punishment follow a clear pattern: They are generally lower for one-year-olds, increase through early childhood, and peak around ages three and four. After this point, rates decline again, with children aged 10–14 showing comparatively low levels in many countries. 

This pattern points to a regional trend rather than isolated national differences. Taken together with broader research on child development, these findings suggest that early childhood is a period of heightened vulnerability. Experiencing violent discipline at this stage can undermine children’s sense of safety, affect brain development and learning, and increase the risk of emotional and behavioural difficulties, with knock-on effects for families and communities over time.

Gender patterns in violent discipline

Across all countries with available data, differences emerge in the prevalence of violent discipline among boys and girls.

This gap is most pronounced for physical punishment, where boys are more likely to be hit or otherwise physically disciplined in most of the countries with available data. For psychological aggression, the difference is smaller, though boys still tend to be affected at slightly higher rates.

These differences are not dramatic in every country, but the pattern is consistent enough to signal that gender norms still play a role in how children are disciplined. Research on parenting practices suggests that gendered expectations around behaviour and obedience may contribute to these patterns, with boys more often perceived as needing firmer control. Recognizing these dynamics is important for designing parenting and prevention programmes that support non-violent approaches for all children, regardless of gender.

Children with disabilities and the risk of violent discipline

Children with disabilities are more likely to experience physical punishment than peers without disabilities. Although the size of the gap varies, children with disabilities face a persistently higher risk in nearly every country where data are available.

In MICS, disability is captured through questions on functional difficulties related to daily life, such as mobility, communication and learning. These questions are widely used in international child rights monitoring as a proxy for disability.

Evidence shows that the risk is shaped by interacting factors at the child, family and societal levels, which can compound vulnerability for children with disabilities. This underlines the importance of disability-inclusive protection and support in the home and in care settings.

Community context can shape children’s risk of violent discipline

Children living in different parts of the same country can face very different risks of violent discipline. In some areas, children may be twice as likely to experience physical punishment by parents or other caregivers as those living elsewhere, showing why it is important to look beyond national averages.

One of the clearest examples comes from children living in Roma settlements. Across Kosovo¹, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia, data show that Roma children experience higher rates of physical punishment than national averages.

For psychological aggression, rates are usually higher in Roma settlements in the countries with available disaggregated data, with Montenegro standing out as the only country of four where the national rate is slightly higher.

Taken together, these findings show that geographic location and community context matter. They also underline that inequalities in violent discipline are not only about individual families, but about broader social and structural conditions shaping how children grow up.

In Roma settlements, these conditions often include higher levels of poverty and social exclusion, and less access to services. When families and communities receive adequate support, risks can be reduced. Further analysis is available in UNICEF’s regional report on Roma children and women.

A safer childhood for every child

Violent discipline leaves lasting emotional and developmental scars. It teaches fear rather than understanding and increases the risk that children will experience or perpetrate violence later in life.

The patterns highlighted in this analysis show that exposure to violent discipline is not random. It follows clear lines, shaped by a myriad of factors such as a child’s age, gender, disability status and community. For some children, harm is concentrated in the very years when they are most dependent on care and protection.

As highlighted in Where We Live and Learn, most parents and other caregivers do not intend to harm their children. Many view these practices as ways to correct behaviour or teach respect.

Yet survey data show a noticeable gap between what adults say they believe and what children experience. Across countries with available data, the share of adults who think physical punishment is necessary is consistently lower than the share of children who experience physical punishment. In North Macedonia, for example, only 4 per cent of adults hold this belief – yet 45 per cent of children are physically punished.

Violent discipline of children often reflects stress, harmful social norms and a lack of adequate support rather than deliberate abuse. This means it can be prevented. 

Every child has the right to grow up free from violence

Ending violent discipline requires action on multiple fronts. Laws must clearly prohibit all forms of violence against children, including corporal punishment, and national commitments must be backed by real resources and capacity. Stronger monitoring systems are also essential, so countries can see where risks are highest and direct services where they are most needed.

Just as importantly, ending violent discipline means prioritizing prevention across sectors and working with caregivers, teachers and professionals to recognize violence, respond safely, and promote non-violent ways of guiding children’s behaviour.

All children deserve care that nurtures, rather than harms. Tracking who is most at risk of violence – and acting on that evidence – is essential to making that right a reality.

To explore national and disaggregated data on violent discipline in Europe and Central Asia, visit the TransMonEE Dashboard or the Leave No Child Behind Dashboard.

Because every child has the right to grow up safe – and Every Right Counts when revealing where protection is falling short.

1. All references to Kosovo should be understood in the context of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999)